We next review the вЂњplausible pathwaysвЂќ by which the characteristic influences youthsвЂ™ outcomes-i.e., how these predictions might reflect causality.В We conclude by recommending policies to reduce the intensity of these specific disadvantages. Where research is available, we then review what is known about the characteristicвЂ™s prediction of cognitive (academic performance or IQ, for example) and non-cognitive (behavioral) outcomes. Data limitations preclude similar descriptions of HispanicsвЂ™ characteristics. Econometric studies that identify the effect of a particular characteristic by holding others constant are valuable, but no study controls for all, and few control for very many.ДЇor each characteristic reviewed here, this report describes its average incidence by race (black versus white) and socioeconomic status. But all have many of them.Д«ecause characteristics of lower-class status overlap and may be interdependent, available data do not permit the isolation of any one. Likewise, this report does not imply that all lower-social-class families have each of these characteristics. Parental unemployment and low wages, housing instability, concentration of disadvantage in segregated neighborhoods, stress, malnutrition, and health problems like asthma are among other harmful characteristics.Д¬ertainly, some children with severe socioeconomic disadvantages achieve at higher levels than typical children without them a range of outcomes is associated with every characteristic, and descriptions of the impacts of social class characteristics only describe averages, not the performance of any particular child. This report makes no judgment about the relative importance of the many adverse influences on child and youth development. These are not the only characteristics that depress outcomes, nor are they necessarily the most important.

exposure to and absorption of lead in the blood.

inadequate access to primary and preventive health care.

parenting practices that impede childrenвЂ™s intellectual and behavioral development.

It focuses on five characteristics for purposes of illustration: This report describes how social class characteristics plausibly depress achievement and suggests policies to address them.

Rather, they look to better schools and teachers to close achievement gaps, and consistently come up short. That studentsвЂ™ social and economic characteristics shape their cognitive and behavioral outcomes is well established, yet policymakers typically resist accepting that non-school disadvantages necessarily depress outcomes.

Leave us alone 1975 download